Geographical Perspective On Selected Issues And Problems (India)

Domestic Sewage:

A large proportion of untreated domestic sewage is discharged directly into rivers and other water bodies. This is due to inadequate sewage treatment facilities and widespread open defecation.

Industrial Effluents:

Industries, particularly those involved in textiles, leather tanning, chemicals, and paper manufacturing, release untreated or partially treated effluents containing heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and organic pollutants into rivers. For example, the leather industry in cities like Kanpur and Kolkata is a major contributor to river pollution.

Agricultural Runoff:

The excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides in agriculture leads to their runoff into rivers and groundwater, causing eutrophication and contamination.

Religious and Cultural Practices:

Immersion of idols, ashes, and other religious offerings in rivers during festivals also contributes to water pollution.

Solid Waste:

Improper disposal of solid waste, including plastic and other non-biodegradable materials, often finds its way into water bodies.

Consequences of Water Pollution:

• Spread of water-borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery.
• Harm to aquatic life and ecosystems.
• Contamination of drinking water sources.
• Economic losses due to reduced fishing yields and increased water treatment costs.

The Ganga Action Plan and the National River Conservation Plan are some of the initiatives taken by the Indian government to combat river pollution, but their effectiveness has been limited due to various challenges.

Industrial Emissions:

Emissions from coal-fired power plants, factories, and other industrial activities release particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), sulfur dioxide ($SO_2$), nitrogen oxides ($NO_x$), and other harmful gases.

Vehicular Emissions:

The ever-increasing number of vehicles, coupled with poor fuel quality and inefficient emission control, leads to significant air pollution, especially in metropolitan areas. Common pollutants include carbon monoxide ($CO$), hydrocarbons ($HC$), and particulate matter.

Construction Activities:

Dust generated from construction sites, demolition, and road construction is a major source of particulate matter pollution.

Crop Burning (Stubble Burning):

In agricultural regions, particularly in Northern India, the practice of burning crop residue after harvest (e.g., in Punjab and Haryana) releases large amounts of particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and other pollutants, significantly impacting air quality in downstream regions like Delhi.

Waste Burning:

Open burning of municipal solid waste and industrial waste in landfills and dump sites releases toxic gases and particulate matter.

Domestic Sources:

Use of biomass fuels (wood, dung cakes) for cooking in rural and semi-urban areas contributes to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

Consequences of Air Pollution:

• Respiratory illnesses (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular diseases, and lung cancer.
• Reduced visibility, leading to transportation disruptions.
• Damage to crops and ecosystems.
• Contribution to climate change.

Government initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) aim to reduce air pollution levels by setting targets for reducing particulate matter concentrations.

Vehicular Traffic:

Horns, engine noise, and traffic congestion are major contributors to noise pollution in cities.

Industrial Activities:

Machinery and equipment in factories and construction sites generate significant noise.

Social Functions:

Loudspeakers during religious festivals, weddings, and public gatherings often exceed permissible noise limits.

Sirens:

Emergency vehicle sirens and public address systems add to the noise levels.

Consequences of Noise Pollution:

• Hearing impairment.
• Sleep disturbances.
• Stress, hypertension, and cardiovascular problems.
• Reduced concentration and productivity.

Legislation like the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, attempts to regulate noise levels, but enforcement remains a challenge.

Sources of Urban Waste:

Urban waste comprises:

• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Household garbage, commercial waste, street sweepings.
• Industrial Waste: By-products from manufacturing processes.
• Construction and Demolition Waste: Debris from building activities.
• Biomedical Waste: Waste from hospitals and healthcare facilities.
• Hazardous Waste: Waste from industries that is toxic, flammable, or reactive.

Current Disposal Methods:

The most common methods of waste disposal in India are:

• Open Dumping: A significant portion of waste is still dumped in open landfills or unauthorized sites, leading to soil and water contamination and air pollution through burning.
• Landfilling: Controlled landfills are used, but many are unscientific and lack proper lining, leachate collection, and gas management.
• Incineration: Used in some areas, but can cause air pollution if not managed properly.
• Composting: Organic waste is composted to produce manure, a more sustainable method but not widely adopted.
• Waste-to-Energy Plants: Emerging as a viable option to generate power from waste, but require significant investment and technological expertise.

Challenges in Waste Management:

• Lack of Infrastructure: Insufficient facilities for collection, segregation, and processing of waste.
• Low Segregation at Source: Most households do not segregate waste, making processing difficult.
• Inadequate Funding: Municipal bodies often lack the financial resources for proper waste management.
• Public Awareness: Lack of public participation and awareness regarding waste reduction and proper disposal.
• Land Availability: Scarcity of land for scientifically managed landfills.

Consequences of Improper Waste Disposal:

• Contamination of soil and groundwater.
• Spread of diseases through vectors like rodents and insects.
• Air pollution from open burning and landfill gases.
• Aesthetic degradation of urban landscapes.

The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, provide a framework for better waste management, emphasizing source segregation, composting, and waste-to-energy conversion.

Push Factors (Reasons for leaving rural areas):

• Poverty and Lack of Economic Opportunities: Limited employment prospects, low agricultural productivity, and lack of alternative livelihoods in rural areas.
• Agricultural Distress: Dependence on monsoon, small landholdings, debt burdens, and lack of access to modern farming techniques push farmers to seek better opportunities.
• Lack of Basic Amenities: Inadequate access to quality education, healthcare, sanitation, and safe drinking water in rural areas.
• Social Factors: Caste discrimination, lack of social mobility, and desire for a better lifestyle can also motivate migration.
• Environmental Factors: Natural disasters like droughts, floods, and land degradation can force people to relocate.

Pull Factors (Reasons attracting people to urban areas):

• Employment Opportunities: Cities offer a wider range of jobs in industries, services, and the informal sector.
• Better Livelihoods: Higher wages and the prospect of earning more money compared to rural areas.
• Access to Education and Healthcare: Better educational institutions and advanced healthcare facilities are concentrated in urban centers.
• Social and Cultural Attractions: Perceived better lifestyle, entertainment, and social services.
• Infrastructure: Availability of better transportation, communication, and utilities.

Consequences of Rural-Urban Migration:

• Urban Overcrowding: Rapid influx of migrants strains urban infrastructure, leading to housing shortages, congestion, and increased demand for services.
• Growth of Slums: Many migrants end up living in informal settlements or slums due to affordability issues, lacking basic amenities and sanitation.
• Pressure on Urban Resources: Increased demand for water, electricity, transportation, and waste management.
• Informal Sector Dominance: Many migrants find employment in the informal sector, characterized by low wages, long hours, and lack of social security.
• Social Issues: Potential for increased crime rates, social tension, and cultural clashes.
• Rural Depopulation: Outflow of young and able-bodied individuals can lead to an aging population and labor shortages in rural areas, impacting agricultural productivity.
• Remittances: Migrants often send money back to their families in rural areas, which can be a significant source of income for rural households.

Effective rural development strategies, including improving rural infrastructure, creating employment opportunities, and enhancing agricultural productivity, are crucial to mitigate the adverse effects of unchecked rural-urban migration.

Characteristics of Slums:

• Informal Housing: Houses are often built with temporary materials (e.g., corrugated iron sheets, plastic, mud) and lack structural stability and proper ventilation.
• Overcrowding: High population density with families living in very small spaces.
• Lack of Basic Services: Absence of clean drinking water, sanitation facilities (toilets), regular electricity supply, and waste disposal systems.
• Poor Sanitation and Hygiene: Open defecation is common, leading to widespread contamination of soil and water, contributing to the spread of diseases.
• Insecure Tenure: Residents often lack legal ownership of the land they occupy, making them vulnerable to eviction.
• Limited Access to Healthcare and Education: Slum dwellers often have poor access to quality healthcare and educational facilities.
• Economic Vulnerability: Many slum residents work in the informal sector with low wages and precarious employment.

Major Problems Faced by Slum Dwellers:

• Health Issues: High incidence of water-borne diseases (cholera, diarrhea), respiratory infections, skin diseases, and malnutrition due to poor sanitation, contaminated water, and overcrowding.
• Social Disintegration: High crime rates, substance abuse, and social unrest can be prevalent in some slum areas.
• Environmental Degradation: Accumulation of garbage, polluted water sources, and lack of green spaces contribute to an unhealthy environment.
• Vulnerability to Disasters: Slum structures are often susceptible to damage from natural disasters like heavy rainfall, floods, and fires.
• Psychological Stress: Living conditions, lack of security, and social stigma can lead to significant psychological stress among residents.

Government Initiatives and Challenges:

Various government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban) aim to provide affordable housing and improve living conditions in urban slums. However, challenges remain in:

• Land Acquisition: Difficulty in acquiring land for redevelopment and in-situ upgrading.
• Relocation: Resistance from residents to relocate from their established communities.
• Funding: Insufficient financial resources for large-scale slum improvement projects.
• Participation: Ensuring meaningful participation of slum dwellers in planning and implementation.

Addressing slum problems requires a multi-pronged approach involving housing, sanitation, healthcare, education, and economic empowerment.

Causes of Land Degradation in India:

• Deforestation: Clearing of forests for agriculture, industry, and urbanization leads to soil erosion and loss of fertility. India's forest cover, though increasing, is still below desirable levels in many regions.
• Soil Erosion: Caused by water and wind, exacerbated by poor farming practices, overgrazing, and deforestation.
• Waterlogging and Salinity: Inadequate drainage in irrigated areas, especially in states like Punjab and Haryana, leads to waterlogging, where the water table rises close to the surface, and salinity, where salts accumulate in the soil, making it unfit for cultivation.
• Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock in certain areas depletes vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion and desertification.
• Unscientific Agricultural Practices:
  • Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides can degrade soil health.
  • Monoculture and lack of crop rotation deplete soil nutrients.
  • Improper irrigation techniques can lead to salinization and alkalization.
• Mining and Quarrying: These activities lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and contamination of land with heavy metals and other pollutants.
• Industrial Pollution: Industrial effluents and waste can contaminate soil with toxic substances.
• Encroachment on Forest Lands: Expansion of agriculture and settlements into forest areas contributes to degradation.

Impacts of Land Degradation:

• Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Degraded land yields lower crop production, impacting food security and farmers' livelihoods.
• Desertification: The process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Degradation of habitats leads to the loss of plant and animal species.
• Increased Flooding and Drought: Poor soil structure and reduced vegetation cover impair the land's ability to absorb water, increasing the risk of both floods and droughts.
• Economic Losses: Reduced agricultural output, increased costs for land reclamation, and loss of ecosystem services.
• Water Scarcity: Degraded land has reduced water-holding capacity, impacting groundwater recharge and surface water availability.

Measures to Combat Land Degradation:

• Afforestation and Reforestation: Planting trees to restore degraded land and prevent soil erosion.
• Sustainable Land Management Practices:
  • Contour ploughing, terracing, and strip cropping to prevent soil erosion.
  • Crop rotation and intercropping to maintain soil fertility.
  • Efficient irrigation techniques and drainage systems.
  • Organic farming and reduced use of chemicals.
• Soil Conservation Measures: Construction of check dams, bunds, and afforestation along riverbanks.
• Reclamation of Degraded Lands: Specific programs for reclaiming saline, alkaline, and waterlogged soils.
• Regulation of Mining Activities: Strict enforcement of environmental regulations for mining operations.
• Public Awareness and Participation: Educating communities about sustainable land use.

The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) aims to improve water use efficiency in agriculture, which indirectly helps in managing land degradation.